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Human activity in the region began with the extinct Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus one million??? Neanderthals were present from , to 40, years ago in the Karatau Mountains and central Kazakhstan. Modern Homo sapiens appeared from 40, to 12, years ago in southern, central, and eastern Kazakhstan. After the end of the last glacial period 12, to 5, years ago , human settlement spread across the country and led to the extinction of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros.

Hunter-gatherer communes invented bows and boats, and used domesticated wolves and traps for hunting. The change in climate forced the massive relocation of populations in and out of the steppe belt. The dry period which lasted from the end of the second millennium to the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE caused the depopulation of the arid belts and river-valley oasis areas; the populations of these areas moved north to the forest steppe.

Following with the end of the arid period at the beginning of the first millennium BCE, nomadic populations migrated into Kazakhstan from the west and the east, repopulating abandoned areas.

These included several Indo-European tribes, often known collectively as the Scythians. During the fourth century CE the Huns controlled Kazakhstan, absorbing 26 independent territories and uniting a number of steppe and forest peoples into a single state. The Huns migrated west.

The future Kazakhstan was absorbed into the Turkic Kaganate and successor states. In the 13th century Kazakhstan was under the dominion of the Mongol Empire, and remained in the sphere of Mongol successor states for years. Portions of the country began to be annexed by the Russian Empire in the 16th century, the remainder gradually absorbed into Russian Turkestan beginning in The modern Republic of Kazakhstan became a political entity during the s Soviet subdivision of Russian Turkestan.

Theorized proportion of Mongoloid elements in ancient and contemporary Kazakh populations, based on male craniological date.

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Prehistoric Bronze Age cultures which extended into the region include the Srubna, the Afanasevo, and the Andronovo. Kazakhstan has a well-articulated culture based on the nomadic pastoral economy of the inhabitants.

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Islam was introduced to Kazakhstan in the 7th to 12th centuries. The traditional Kazakh dwelling is the yurt, a tent consisting of a flexible framework of willow wood covered with varying thicknesses of felt. The open top permits smoke from the central hearth to escape; temperature and draft can be controlled by a flap that increases or decreases the size of the opening. A properly constructed yurt can be cooled in summer and warmed in winter, and it can be disassembled or set up in less than an hour. The interior of the yurt has ritual significance; the right side is generally reserved for men and the left for women.

Yurts are also frequently used as a decorative motif in restaurants and other public buildings. Almaty Almaty, also known by its former names Verny Russian:???? It is already more than 15 years since the capital has been moved from mild and soft climate of North Tian-Shan into the cold and windy prairie of Central Kazakhstan.

In spite of everything, Almaty is still the biggest city in the country and is its main commercial, financial, scientific and educational center. It is locally famous as a monument to love and faithfulness. Khoja Akhmed Yassawi Khoja Akhmed Yassawi born in Sayram in , and died in in Hazrat-e Turkestan, both cities now in Kazakhstan , was a Turkic poetand Sufi Muslim mystic , an early mystic who exerted a powerful influence on the development of mystical orders throughout the Turkic-speaking world. Yasavi is currently the earliest known Turkic poet who composed poetry in a Turkic dialect.

Yassawi made considerable efforts to spread Islam throughout Central Asia and had numerous students in the region. Yassawi made the city of Yasi into the major centre of learning for the Kazakh steppes, then retired to a life of contemplation aged He dug himself an underground cell where he spent the rest of his life. Turkish scholar Hasan Basri?? It was a Seljuk king who brought Rumi, the great Sufi poet, to Konya; and it was in Seljuq times that Ahmad Yesevi, another great Sufi, lived and taught.

The influence of those two remarkable teachers has continued to the present.???? A mausoleum was later built on the site of his grave by Tamerlane the Great in the city today called Turkistan. Otrar Otrar was first excavated in Remains were found of some brick structures, including a palace, mosque, a bathhouse and ovens. Otraror Utrar also called Farab is a Central Asian ghost town that was a city located along the Silk Road near the current town of Karatau in Kazakhstan.

Otrar was an important town in the history of Central Asia, situated on the borders of settled and agricultural civilizations. It was the center of a great oasis and political district, commanding a key point connecting Kazakhstan with China, Europe, Near and Middle East, Siberia and Ural. Kolsay lakes Kolsai lakes are mountain lakes in the Northern Tien Shan.

They are located down along the gorge of the Kolsai River in a peculiar cascade. The most available is the Lower Lake: a good dirt road comes to it. The lakeis located at an altitude of m, has a length of meters, a width of meters and a depth of 80 m. It was formed as a result of the manifestation of seismic activity. A huge collapse from the western ridge formed a grand dam. Repeatedly the waters of the reservoir broke it, as a result of which a deep canyon formed below the lake. The landscape around the lake is very picturesque. All the slopes were densely covered with the famous Schrenk spruce, which grows only in this part of the planet.

Rainbow trout lives in a pond. The lake in all seasons and at different times of the day is beautiful in its own way. Especially the lake is adorable in autumn, when the deciduous plants bloom with all the colors of the rainbow on the background of evergreen spruce trees. The Second or Middle Lake is located higher along the gorge, at six and a half kilometers, at an altitude of 2, meters.

The lake also formed as a result of a powerful earthquake and the collapse of the eastern slope. With liberalization, exports and imports increased substantially throughout the s. Exports are dominated by petroleum products, followed by nonferrous and ferrous metals — a pattern that was likely to continue. Kazakhstan's largest imports are machinery and oil and gas products. In percentage terms, in Kazakhstan's major exports were: oil and gas condensate The primary imports in were: machinery and equipment Kazakhstan's leading markets in were: Switzerland The leading suppliers were: Russia Strong exports of oil and minerals created trade surpluses in the early s.

Large amounts of foreign direct investment have also aided the country's balance of payments situation.

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Kazakhstan floated its currency, the tenge, in , resulting in a devaluation. Subsequently, exports recovered and there was a fall in imports, and the currency stabilized against the dollar. In the next year the existence of private and public financial institutions were legalized. In , the parliament approved a new banking law that separated the National Bank of Kazakhstan from the government, and gave the. Before November , monetary and credit policy was under the control of two central banks, the Russian Central Bank RCB , which also acted as the ruble zone's central bank , and the NBK.

Until November , the currency unit in the country was the ruble. On 15 November , Kazakhstan established its own currency, the tenge. In the NBK continued the tight monetary stance it adopted in , becoming increasingly sophisticated in its monetary operations. The NBK admits that corporate governance and management in banks is weak: Kazakhstan's banks tend to be very small, concentrated in Almaty, and more interested in dealing in treasury bills than in providing long-term credits to lenders.

As of , there was no deposit insurance scheme in operation.

Organized crime is also a problem for many banks, with security therefore assuming a considerable cost. The reform of the banking sector was initially set up according to a two-tier system, with the central bank occupying the top tier and specialized, sector-oriented banks occupying the second tier. Among these specialized banks are Narodny Bank for savings ; Kazakhstan Bank for industry and agriculture ; Turan Bank for the construction sector ; Kredsotsbank for housing and municipal services ; and Agroprombank for agriculture.

Kazakhstan has one of the fastest growing economies in the world, thanks almost entirely to high world oil prices. GDP grew 9. The surge has been extremely helpful in ridding the government deficit. In , the deficit was equivalent to 3. Public debt in amounted to 9.

The International Monetary Fund IMF reported that in , the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were t Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, In January a new Tax Code went into effect. The new code, seen by tax experts as a model of equity, economic neutrality and simplicity on its face, if not in its implementation , replaced the Tax Code that had been criticized for leaving too much discretion in the hands of the Tax Police and other government officials.

The new code also reduced a number of tax rates. In January , a new investment law was introduced that generally eliminates tax incentives for foreign investors. In Kazakhstan, licenses are required to import certain products and the importation of others is prohibited. An import tariff schedule eliminated duties for most consumer goods in April There are no longer any export tariffs on most goods.

However, animal skins, nonferrous and scrap ferrous metals are subject to an export duty. Tariffs have increased on certain products, including alcoholic beverages, leather, and carpets. In May , the Republic of Kazakhstan and the United States signed a most-favored nation agreement for reciprocal tariff treatment. Even before its formal independence, the government adopted the Foreign Investment Law of that allowed investment by foreign companies in any economic activity except the manufacture of military goods.

The law contained provisions for duty-free imports as well as tax breaks for firms with foreign investment, especially those involved in producing consumer goods, agricultural goods, and electronic and medical equipment.