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Weaving a coarse fabric with so many loom weights would be impractical and even counterproductive. Therefore, it can safely be assumed that for a coarser textile of thicker threads, a weaver would choose thicker and heavier loom weights. This leads to the conclusion that the use of thin, light loom weights, such as ARS, would be a deliberate choice by the weaver to produce a specifi c type of fabric, namely a densely woven fabric of very thin threads requiring low warp tension.
In period V A, the loom weights changed radically in terms of type, thickness and weight.
It is important to note, however, that even though these loom weights differ from previous periods, it is still possible to produce the same types of fabric with them. Conclusions on two millennia of textile production at Arslantepe. Spinning technology. The contextual analysis of the textile tools has demonstrated that loom weights and spindle whorls are never found together in the same room or area in Arslantepe.
Spinning and weaving activities seem to have taken place in household contexts alongside other domestic activities. No fi rm connection between the textile activities and a central management in the palatial sphere is apparent. However, the variety evident in the textile production and the good quality of the textile tools in all periods at Arslantepe suggest a high level of spinning and weaving technologies and the presence of skilled spinners and weavers.
The present analysis is based on a total of 88 spindle whorls, of which 74 come from stratifi ed layers: 40 spindle whorls belong to period VII, 8 spindle whorls belong to period VI A, 14 belong to period VI B, 10 belong to periods VI C-D, and 2 are dated to period V A table 1. In all periods, from VII to V A, spindle whorls mainly derive from household contexts, with few exceptions table 1.
In period VII, there is no signifi cant variation in weight and diameter between spindle whorls found in household contexts, pits or other contexts. From period VI A onwards the spindle whorls found in household contexts are concentrated in the weight range of g, whereas whorls discovered in pits and other contexts display a greater weight distribution. Finally, though the spindle whorls found in period VI A are very few, there is no signifi cant variation between those found in the palace area and those in the settlement area of the same period.
Table 6 — Calculation of various loom setups with loom weight ARS weight g, thickness 3. Table 8 — Chronological distribution of loom weights according to shape and material. Staring from period VI A, the material used for making spindle whorls changed slightly. A wider use of raw material is in particular observed during period VI B2, when there is an equal distribution of spindle whorls made of clay, stone and bone table 7. The whorls vary in weight from g and their diameter varies from mm see fi g. During period VII, all whorls weighing less than 26 g are made of bone, whereas during the following periods, the light whorls are also made of other materials such as clay and stone.
These light clay and stone whorls of periods VI-V, however, have a smaller diameter than the bone whorls of the previous period VII. The analysis also provides evidence of a change in the variety of spinning tools from the 4th to the 2nd millennium, clearly recognisable from period VI B2 Early Bronze I.
The whorls of period VII are g in weight and mm in diameter; whereas the whorls of the following periods range from 5 to 49 g and from 23 to 50 mm in diameter. The wider range of weights and diameters in the spinning tools of periods VI-V A suggests that there may have been a change in the textile production with a larger variety of yarns being produced in the later periods.
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Spindle whorls from period VII form a distinct group see fi g. This suggests a shift in spinning practice, and, consequently, in textile production, starting from period VI B2. The diameter of the whorls from period VII is generally quite large, indicating that the yarn must have been quite hard spun. Vegetal fi bres require harder twist and we suggest that the whorls refl ect the vegetal fi bre processing dominating the textile production in the 4th millennium.
Whorls become lighter and smaller in period VI B2, suggesting an increase in animal fi bres and that very thin and less hard spun yarn could now be produced. Weaving technology. All 23 loom weights from period VII are made of unfi red clay. In contrast, the majority of the loom weights 19 out of 21 objects belonging to period VI A are made of fi red clay, as are also the few examples dated to periods VI B, C, and D.
The same trend can be seen in period V A, where the majority of the loom weights 38 of 66 objects are made of fi red clay and only 11 items are made of unfi red clay table 8. The analysis further demonstrates a clear change in the shapes of the loom weights over the course of time: 18 of the 23 period VII loom weights are hemispherical; 17 of the 21 loom weights are coni-. Thus, we are dealing with three distinct contexts— and probably looms— belonging to three periods.
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The differences in material and type between the three periods therefore may not necessarily only represent a change over time or a change in production, but may also refl ect the different nature of the three contexts and different types of textile production. Developments in the textile technology. In period VII, the weavers in Arslantepe produced fabrics with warp threads and the same number of weft threads in tabby or more weft threads in a weft-faced fabric. In period V A loom weights, a wider range of weights and thicknesses can be observed, but, generally speaking, the loom weights found in periods VI B2-V A have become lighter and thinner compared to period VII.
The tools from period VII are suitable for fabrics with warp threads per cm, whereas those belonging to period V A are suited to the production of a wider range of fabrics with up to 16 warp threads per cm.
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Thus, the variation in production of different qualities of threads and fabrics increased during the later period. In terms of spinning activities, a change in the size of spindle whorls was observed from phase VI B2, with whorls becoming lighter and smaller, suggesting that very thin and less hard spun yarn could now be produced. The changes in the loom weights observed in period V A, when loom weights also became lighter and thinner, allowed the production of denser fabrics with very thin threads. This suggests an increased variation in production of different qualities of threads and fabrics during the later periods.
Therefore it is impossible to determine whether the changes in spinning and weaving coincided chronologically. For the time being, it seems that the new animal fi bres fi rst infl uenced the size, weight and diameter of the spinning tools, and only subsequently resulted in the modifi -cation of the weaving tools. It should also be noted that it is much more time-consuming to produce the fi ner threads and fabrics.
The spinners and weavers in Arslantepe were skilled craftspeople; they knew how to spin and how to weave and which tools to use to produce specifi c qualities. The combination of textile tool studies and faunal analyses has promising perspectives and potentials: it allows for more precise identifi cation of the fi bre changes and the introduction of animal fi bres in the textile production in the 4th millennium.
Equally important is the combination of textile tool studies and analysis of actual textile remains in the fortunate cases in which they are preserved: it allows for a more precise understanding of the textile production, its qualities and limitations. Textile remains indeed represent an excellent opportunity to verify the methodologies of textile tool studies; they provide insight both into the weaving techniques and the fi bre material.
The textile analysis also points to the complexity of available textile technologies, often far more advanced than the. Figure 11 was generously provided by textile engineer J. Boutrup, Designskolen Kolding, Denmark, and textile technician and archaeologist L. Olofsson made experiments for this paper. The authors also thank the anonymous reviewers for constructive comments and suggestions. Dipartimento di Scienze Storiche.