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There was only modest resettlement of the landless 52, out of , landless families from to and when white farmers were bought out, black politicians often benefited. Some 4, white farmers owned more than one-third of the best land. In March , a controversial Land Acquisition Act was passed calling for the government to purchase half of the mostly white-owned commercial farming land at below-market prices, without the right of appeal, in order to redistribute land to black peasants.
However, the government continued to move slowly and not until April was it announced that 70 farms, totaling , acres, would be purchased. ESAP pressed for a market-driven economy, reduction of the civil service , and an end to price controls and commodity subsidies. Meanwhile, in the March elections, Mugabe was reelected with There was a sharp drop in voter participation, and the election was marred by restrictions on opposition activity and open intimidation of opposition voters.
At first, Mugabe insisted that the results were a mandate to establish a one-party state. Sensing an erosion of political support, Mugabe restricted human and political rights, weakened the Bill of Rights , placed checks on the judiciary, and tampered with voters' rolls and opposition party financing. As the economy sputtered, political opposition grew. In January , Sithole returned from seven years of self-imposed exile in the United States.
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In July, Ian Smith chaired a meeting of Rhodesian-era parties seeking to form a coalition in opposition to Mugabe. Students, church leaders, trade unionists, and the media began to speak out. In May a new pressure group , the Forum for Democratic Reform, was launched in preparation for the elections.
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Parliamentary and presidential elections in and though officially won by ZANU-PF, were discredited by opposition boycotts and low voter turnout. Then in , a homegrown pro-democracy coalition was launched from the constituency for constitutional reform — the National Constitutional Assembly NCA. The birth of the NCA dovetailed with the growing radicalization of the Zimbabwe Confederation of Trade Unions ZCTU and its transformation from a collective bargaining agent for organized urban industrial labor into a broad-based political opposition movement representing a wide spectrum of civil society, the Movement for Democratic Change MDC.
NCA supporters embraced the MDC as a vehicle for implementing the new constitution should the government be amenable to it. The MDC's first test came in February at a national referendum for constitutional changes strongly pro-regime. On 12 — 13 February, voters soundly rejected the proposals much to the chagrin of the ruling party. Again threatened, Mugabe cracked down on the opposition.
In the run-up to and aftermath of the elections, 34 people were killed, including Tsvangirai's driver and a poll worker who were killed in a gasoline-bomb attack.
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The credibility the regime was further damaged in the 9 — 11 March presidential polls, the conduct of which was declared fraudulent by the opposition and — with the exception of the African Union AU and Southern African Development Community SADC — by the international community. Officially, Mugabe garnered By some reports, 31 people were killed in January and February and tortured. The opposition mounted a legal challenge to the results while the Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe for one year. By , the country faced multiple crises.
Owing to negative impacts of land grabbing, squatting, and repossessions of large white farms under the government's fast-track land reform program, some , jobs had been lost in commercial agriculture. Strikes crippled production, prompting ever more severe repression by the government.
Given the devastating social impact of these issues, internal and diplomatic pressures were mounting for Mugabe to abandon his survival strategy in favor of a quick and clean exit strategy. One such move afoot was to offer the MDC a form of transitional government in exchange for cooperation in amending the constitution to allow a managed presidential succession and immunity from prosecution for the president and his followers in their retirement.
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However, there was a reluctance on the part of Tsvangirai's supporters to offer amnesty to a regime that had committed in excess of , cases of human rights violations ranging from murder, abduction, and rape to arson. Tsvangirai was arrested and charged with treason in June ; he already had an outstanding treason charge from for attempting to assassinate Mugabe. In October , Tsvangirai was acquitted of the treason charge. In August , prosecutors dropped the remaining treason charges against Tsvangirai.
The opposition claimed the election was rigged, but the MDC won almost all urban seats in the second election in a row. From May to July of that year, tens of thousands of shanty dwellings and illegal street stalls were destroyed as part of a government clean-up program "Operation Murambatsvina" — "Drive Out Rubbish". In some cases the police forced people to knock down their own homes.
In other cases, trucks and bulldozers moved in. The United Nations estimated the program left approximately , people homeless. The government's policy of moving city dwellers to rural areas only worsened the already dire consequences of food shortages. The main opposition to Mugabe's rule came from urban areas. Under the constitution of 18 April , independent Zimbabwe had a bicameral parliament consisting of a house of assembly with members, 20 of whom were elected by white voters, and 80 by persons on the common voters' roll, which included all voters except whites.
The upper house, or senate, had 40 members, 14 of whom were chosen by the 80 assembly members elected from the common roll, 10 by the 20 white assembly members, 10 by the council of chiefs, and 6 nominated by the president on the advice of the prime minister.
In August , as soon as the constitution allowed, the separate representation for whites in parliament was abolished and the 20 seats were temporarily filled by representatives selected by the other 80 members. After the elections, the two houses of parliament were merged into a single chamber of members — elected by popular vote serving for five years, 10 traditional chiefs, 8 provincial governors, and 12 members appointed by the president. A constitutional change created an executive presidency and abolished the office of prime minister.
Amidst controversy, he was reelected in March , March , and March There is universal suffrage from age The next presidential elections were scheduled for March The Rhodesian Front Party, which dominated politics from its formation in March until the establishment of majority rule in , advocated racial separation, division of land on a racial basis, and the protection of the Rhodesian whites. The party won all 20 Assembly seats reserved for whites in both the and elections, and in , it changed its name to the Republican Front Party RFP.
Ian Smith, who served — 79 as prime minister, remained as party leader until his suspension from parliament in He was succeeded by Mark Partridge. The CAZ won 15 of the 20 seats allotted to whites in the elections. The principal black parties in Zimbabwean politics originated in the struggle for independence along ethnic lines. In elections on 17 — 21 April , the UANC captured a majority of 51 seats in the new Assembly, and Muzorewa became the nation's first black prime minister. The elections, however, were boycotted by the PF, which continued its armed opposition to the government.
President Mugabe declared his intention to make Zimbabwe a one-party state by He regarded his party's victory in the elections as a mandate to proceed with his plans to establish ZANU-PF as the only legal party. He was soon turned away from that scheme by strong pressure from creditor governments abroad and a chorus of opposition domestically, including from within ZANU-PF. Zimbabwe got caught up in the general press throughout tropical Africa for greater decentralization of power and competitive party politics. New parties began to emerge in the late s and early s in preparation for the expected elections in However, in both elections it was widely accepted that the result had been predetermined.
The Zimbabwe government made little pretense of conducting a free and fair election. Parliamentary elections were scheduled for April , but were postponed until June. The opposition argued that the draft constitution further entrenched executive rule allowing Mugabe to dissolve cabinet and parliament, and to rule by decree. Parliamentary elections were held on 31 March The MDC won 41 seats, or One seat was secured by an independent candidate.
The elections were not marked by violence as in the past, but the opposition claimed the elections were fraudulent. Human rights groups said that hundreds of thousands of "ghost voters" appeared on the electoral role. The next parliamentary elections were scheduled for Challenges to the continued success of the MDC included leadership, credibility on the streets, articulation of position on contentious issues, and resource base.