We estimate that 2, Black circles denote the locations of these municipalities. Retrospective analysis of dengue virus transmission to identify municipalities where CHIKV is expected to circulate. Spatial dengue virus monthly incidence averaged between and is shown in Brazilian municipalities. Genetic and epidemiological data suggest that the ECSA genotype was introduced from Angola to Feira de Santana in June , where epidemiological investigation is ongoing.
CHIKV appears to be endemic in Angola [ 32 ], where thousands of Brazilians, mostly from Northeast and Southeast areas [ 33 ], work in the petroleum and mining industries. Genetic data suggests multiple introductions of the Asian genotype to Brazil from ongoing epidemics in the Caribbean and South America.
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Surveillance data suggests autochthonous transmission in Oiapoque began by early September [ 8 ], and we posit that the strain circulating there was imported from French Guiana, a country bordering Oiapoque that has reported a steady increase in autochthonous cases since January [ 8 ]. The fact that we observe two different strains is sufficient to demonstrate that the epidemics in Oiapoque and Feira de Santana resulted from separate introductions and this result is robust to the number of sequences obtained.
Our genetic estimate of the date of introduction of the ECSA genotype to Feira de Santana has an upper bound of 15 August, , suggesting that the CHIKV surveillance network in Brazil was able to detect early cases of this introduction. It is possible that the sustained transmission described here in results from the introduction of CHIKV strains into a location with appropriate vector abundance and during a period with appropriate climate conditions [ 34 ], particularly during monsoon rainfall period and high temperatures [ 35 ]. Some additional observations deserve further investigation.
Training health care workers for differential diagnosis of DENV and CHIKV, increased availability of diagnostic tests for patient sera and mosquitoes, as well as educational programs and a national active surveillance system are needed to control CHIKV spread [ 3 ]. A small percentage of those living in rural northern and western areas of the country have antibodies to Mayaro virus MAYV , a related alphavirus associated with Haemagogus mosquitoes [ 34 ].
Risk of CHIKV transmission is driven by a range of factors, including the presence and local abundance of suitable vector species, environmental variables such as ambient temperature, and socioeconomic factors. More specifically, Ae. In contrast, Ae. This could be obtained from, for example, anonymised cell phone call records [ 42 ] or through collating existing microcensus data. The ECSA outbreak in Feira de Santana persists and is disseminating to other regions in Brazil — and potentially to locations outside the country. Therefore, continued genetic surveillance will be necessary to investigate whether the ECSA genotype will acquire the AV mutation in the viral E1 protein that can increase viral transmission in Ae.
In the long term, both genotypes could potentially disappear from the region if levels of human population immunity increase sufficiently. This pattern has been seen in Africa [ 31 ] and potentially in Southeast Asia [ 43 ], where there is some evidence of a sylvatic CHIKV transmission cycle involving non-human primates and forest-dwelling mosquitoes, similar to that observed for sylvatic yellow fever virus, which was introduced into tropical Americas from Africa with the slave trade and is still endemic in the Amazon and Orinoco River basins [ 44 ].
DENV serotypes also exhibit sylvatic cycles in some areas of Southeast Asia and Africa, but this has not been yet observed in the Americas. With CHIKV transmission established in highly connected regions in the north and northeast of Brazil and with the peak suitability season fast approaching, now is the time for preventative action. Chikungunya, an epidemic arbovirosis. Lancet Infect Dis. Pan American Health Organization.
Preparedness and response for Chikungunya virus: introduction in the Americas. Google Scholar. Weaver SC. Arrival of Chikungunya virus in the new world: prospects for spread and impact on public health. Multi-peaked adaptive landscape for Chikungunya virus evolution predicts continued fitness optimization in Aedes albopictus mosquitoes. Nat Commun. Imported Chikungunya virus infection. Emerg Infect Dis. Chikungunya in the Americas.
Important notice
Brazilian Health Portal. Concurrent outbreaks of dengue, Chikungunya and Zika virus infections — an unprecedented epidemic wave of mosquito-borne viruses in the Pacific — Euro Surveill. Detection of four dengue serotypes suggests rise in hyperendemicity in urban centers of Brazil. An integrated semiconductor device enabling non-optical genome sequencing.
Genome Res. Nucleic Acids Res. MAFFT version 5: improvement in accuracy of multiple sequence alignment. New algorithms and methods to estimate maximum-likelihood phylogenies: assessing the performance of PhyML 3. Syst Biol. Mol Biol Evol. Nat Methods. Relaxed phylogenetics and dating with confidence. PLoS Biol.
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Improving Bayesian population dynamics inference: a coalescent-based model for multiple loci. Bayesian coalescent inference of past population dynamics from molecular sequences. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. Human mobility in a continuum approach.
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PLoS One. Dynamic population mapping using mobile phone data. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center sedac. Global Administrative Areas. Nelder JA, Mead R. A simplex method for function minimization. Comput J. Team RC. R: a language and environment for computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing; Updating the geographical distribution and frequency of Aedes albopictus in Brazil with remarks regarding its range in the Americas.
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Genome-scale phylogenetic analyses of chikungunya virus reveal independent emergences of recent epidemics and various evolutionary rates. J Virol. Arbovirus studies in Luanda, Angola.
Virological and serological studies during an outbreak of dengue-like disease caused by the Chikungunya virus. Bull World Health Organ.
Accessed 07 Nov Clinical and ecoepidemiological situation of human arboviruses in Brazilian Amazonia. J Braz Assoc Adv Sci. Staples JE, Fischer M. Chikungunya virus in the Americas—what a vectorborne pathogen can do. N Engl J Med. Evolutionary relationships and systematics of the alphaviruses.
Cross-reactivity of antibodies to viruses belonging to the Semliki forest serocomplex. Euro surveillance ; J Clin Virol. High level of vector competence of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus from ten American countries as a crucial factor in the spread of Chikungunya virus. Coelho GE. Challenges in the control of Aedes aegypti. Quantifying the impact of human mobility on malaria. The first isolation of Chikungunya virus from non-human primates in Malaysia. J Gen Molec Virol. An epidemiological study of jungle yellow fever in an endemic area in Brazil; epidemiology of human infections; investigation of vertebrate hosts and arthropod vectors.
AmJTrop Med Hyg. Download references. We are grateful to the Brazilian Dengue and Chikungunya network composed by 17 national laboratories for their assistance on preliminary screening diagnostics. Alcantara, and Daniele Barbosa Medeiros for providing epidemiological information. DCC 1. On January 12, , the Center transmitted by email to eNom a request for registrar verification in connection with the disputed domain name.
On January 12, , eNom transmitted by email to the Center its verification response confirming that Respondent is listed as the registrant and providing the contact details. In accordance with the Rules, paragraphs 2 a and 4 a , the Center formally notified Respondent of the Complaint, and the proceedings commenced on February 2, In accordance with the Rules, paragraph 5 a , the due date for Response was February 22, Respondent did not submit any response.
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The Center appointed Eduardo Machado as the sole panelist in this matter on March 2, The Panel finds that it was properly constituted. The Panel has submitted the Statement of Acceptance and Declaration of Impartiality and Independence, as required by the Center to ensure compliance with the Rules, paragraph 7. Complainant is also the owner of Brazilian trademark registrations No. Complainant finally contends that bad faith is demonstrated when domain name owner registered it with the purpose of preventing Complainant from reflecting the mark in a corresponding domain name, perhaps with the intention of selling it for a profit to Complainant.
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