He was succeeded by Acacius of Beroea , who governed the see for over 50 years and was at the First Council of Constantinople in and the Council of Ephesus in In , he was succeeded by Theoctistus, who participated in the Council of Chalcedon in and was a signatory of the joint letter that the bishops of the province of Syria Prima sent in to Emperor Leo I the Thracian about the murder of Proterius of Alexandria. The last known bishop of the see is Megas, who was at a synod called by Patriarch Menas of Constantinople in Very few physical remains have been found from the Roman and Byzantine periods in the Citadel of Aleppo.
The two mosques inside the Citadel are known to be converted from churches originally built by the Byzantines. The Sasanian Persians led by King Khosrow I pillaged and burned Aleppo in , [52] [53] then they invaded and controlled Syria briefly in the early 7th century.
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In , it became the seat of an independent Emirate under the Hamdanid prince Sayf al-Dawla , and enjoyed a period of great prosperity, being home to the great poet al-Mutanabbi and the philosopher and polymath al-Farabi. For the next few decades the city was disputed by the Fatimid Caliphate and Byzantine Empire , with the nominally independent Hamdanids in between, eventually falling to the Fatimids in On 9 August , a deadly earthquake ravaged the city and the surrounding area.
Although estimates from this time are very unreliable, it is believed that , people died, making it the sixth deadliest earthquake in recorded history. In , Aleppo became capital of the expanding Zengid dynasty , which ultimately conquered Damascus in In Aleppo came under the control of Saladin and then the Ayyubid dynasty. He ruled Syria from his seat in Aleppo until, on 24 January , [59] the city was taken by the Mongols under Hulagu in alliance with their vassals the Frankish knights of the ruler of Antioch Bohemond VI and his father-in-law the Armenian ruler Hetoum I.
The Muslim population was massacred and many Jews were also killed. Turanshah was shown unusual respect by the Mongols, and was allowed to live because of his age and bravery.
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The city was then given to the former Emir of Homs , al-Ashraf , and a Mongol garrison was established in the city. Some of the spoils were also given to Hethoum I for his assistance in the attack. The Mongol Army then continued on to Damascus , which surrendered, and the Mongols entered the city on 1 March In September , the Egyptian Mamluks negotiated for a treaty with the Franks of Acre which allowed them to pass through Crusader territory unmolested, and engaged the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut on 3 September The Mamluks won a decisive victory, killing the Mongols' Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa , and five days later they had retaken Damascus.
Aleppo was recovered by the Muslims within a month, and a Mamluk governor placed to govern the city. Hulagu sent troops to try to recover Aleppo in December. They were able to massacre a large number of Muslims in retaliation for the death of Kitbuqa, but after a fortnight could make no other progress and had to retreat. The Mamluk governor of the city became insubordinate to the central Mamluk authority in Cairo, and in Autumn the Mamluk leader Baibars sent an army to reclaim the city.
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In October , the Mongols took the city again, attacking with 10, horsemen from Anatolia , and defeating the Turcoman troops who were defending Aleppo. The Mamluk garrisons fled to Hama , until Baibars came north again with his main army, and the Mongols retreated. On 20 October , the Mongols took the city again, pillaging the markets and burning the mosques. The Muslim inhabitants fled for Damascus, where the Mamluk leader Qalawun assembled his forces.
When his army advanced, the Mongols again retreated, back across the Euphrates. In , the Mongol-Turkic leader Tamerlane captured the city again from the Mamluks. Aleppo became part of the Ottoman Empire in , when the city had around 50, inhabitants, or 11, households according to an Ottoman census.
Following the Ottoman provincial reform of Aleppo became the centre of the newly constituted Vilayet of Aleppo in Thanks to its strategic geographic location on the trade route between Anatolia and the east, Aleppo rose to high prominence in the Ottoman era, at one point being second only to Constantinople in the empire. By the middle of the 16th century, Aleppo had displaced Damascus as the principal market for goods coming to the Mediterranean region from the east. This is reflected by the fact that the Levant Company of London , a joint-trading company founded in to monopolize England's trade with the Ottoman Empire, never attempted to settle a factor, or agent, in Damascus, despite having had permission to do so.
Aleppo served as the company's headquarters until the late 18th century. As a result of the economic development, many European states had opened consulates in Aleppo during the 16th and the 17th centuries, such as the consulate of the Republic of Venice in , the consulate of France in , the consulate of England in and the consulate of the Netherlands in However, the prosperity Aleppo experienced in the 16th and 17th century started to fade as silk production in Iran went into decline with the fall of the Safavid dynasty in By mid-century, caravans were no longer bringing silk from Iran to Aleppo, and local Syrian production was insufficient for Europe's demand.
European merchants left Aleppo and the city went into an economic decline that was not reversed until the midth century when locally produced cotton and tobacco became the principal commodities of interest to the Europeans. The economy of Aleppo was badly hit by the opening of the Suez Canal in This, in addition to political instability that followed the implementation of significant reforms in by the central government, contributed to Aleppo's decline and the rise of Damascus as a serious economic and political competitor with Aleppo.
Reference is made to the city in in William Shakespeare's Macbeth. The witches torment the captain of the ship the Tiger , which was headed to Aleppo from England and endured a day voyage before returning unsuccessfully to port. The English naval chaplain Henry Teonge describes in his diary a visit he paid to the city in , when there was a colony of Western European merchants living there.
The city remained Ottoman until the empire's collapse, but was occasionally riven with internal feuds as well as attacks of cholera from Around 20—25 percent of the population died of plague in Though this event has been portrayed as driven by pure sectarian principles, Bruce Masters argues that such analysis of this period of violence is too shallow and neglects the tensions that existed among the population due to the commercial favor afforded to certain Christian minorities by the Tanzimat Reforms during this time which played a large role in creating antagonism between previously cooperative groups of Muslim and Christians in the eastern quarters of the city.
The Ottomans took over the city weeks later killing some 5, The outcome, however, was disastrous for Aleppo, because as per the Treaty of Lausanne , most of the Province of Aleppo was made part of Turkey with the exception of Aleppo and Alexandretta ; [73] thus, Aleppo was cut from its northern satellites and from the Anatolian cities beyond on which Aleppo depended heavily in commerce. Moreover, the Sykes-Picot division of the Near East separated Aleppo from most of Mesopotamia , which also harmed the economy of Aleppo.
The situation was exacerbated further in when Alexandretta was annexed to Turkey, [74] [75] [76] thus depriving Aleppo of its main port of Iskenderun and leaving it in total isolation within Syria. The State of Aleppo was declared by French General Henri Gouraud in September as part of a French scheme to make Syria easier to control by dividing it into several smaller states. France became more hostile to the idea of a united Syria after the Battle of Maysaloun. By separating Aleppo from Damascus, Gouraud wanted to capitalize on a traditional state of competition between the two cities and turn it into political division.
The people in Aleppo were unhappy with the fact that Damascus was chosen as capital for the new nation of Syria. Gouraud sensed this sentiment and tried to manipulate it by making Aleppo the capital of a large and wealthier state with which it would have been hard for Damascus to compete. The State of Aleppo as drawn by France contained most of the fertile area of Syria: the fertile countryside of Aleppo in addition to the entire fertile basin of river Euphrates. The state also had access to sea via the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta.
On the other hand, Damascus, which is basically an oasis on the fringes of the Syrian Desert , had neither enough fertile land nor access to sea. Basically, Gouraud wanted to lure Aleppo by giving it control over most of the agricultural and mineral wealth of Syria so that it would never want to unite with Damascus again. The limited economic resources of the Syrian states made the option of completely independent states undesirable for France, because it threatened an opposite result: the states collapsing and being forced back into unity.
This was why France proposed the idea of a Syrian federation that was realized in Initially, Gouraud envisioned the federation as encompassing all the states, even Lebanon.
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In the end however, only three states participated: Aleppo, Damascus , and the Alawite State. The capital of the federation was Aleppo at first, but it was relocated to Damascus. The president of the federation was Subhi Barakat , an Antioch -born politician from Aleppo. This action came after the federation decided to merge the three federated states into one and to take steps encouraging Syria's financial independence, steps which France viewed as too much. When the Syrian Revolt erupted in southern Syria in , the French held in Aleppo State new elections that were supposed to lead to the breaking of the union with Damascus and restore the independence of Aleppo State.
The French were driven to believe by pro-French Aleppine politicians that the people in Aleppo were supportive of such a scheme. After the new council was elected, however, it surprisingly voted to keep the union with Damascus. Syrian nationalists had waged a massive anti-secession public campaign that vigorously mobilized the people against the secession plan, thus leaving the pro-French politicians no choice but to support the union. The result was a big embarrassment for France, which wanted the secession of Aleppo to be a punitive measure against Damascus, which had participated in the Syrian Revolt.
This was the last time that independence was proposed for Aleppo. The period immediately following independence from France was marked by increasing rivalry between Aleppo and Damascus. Instead, Damascus favoured a pro-Egyptian, pro-Saudi orientation and actively participated in the establishment of the Arab League in Alexandria in , an organization that was seen by many Arab nationalists as a 'conspiracy' aimed against the unification of the Fertile Crescent under the Hashimites. The increasing disagreements between Aleppo and Damascus led eventually to the split of the National Block into two factions: the National Party , established in Damascus in , and the People's Party , established in Aleppo in by Rushdi Kikhya and Nazim Qudsi.
The issue of the capital became an open debate matter in when the Popular Party presented a constitution draft that called Damascus a "temporary capital. However, lured by the absolute power he enjoyed as a dictator, Zaim soon developed a pro-Egyptian, pro-Western orientation and abandoned the cause of union with Iraq. This incited a second coup only four months after his.
The news of an imminent union with Iraq incited a third coup the same year: in December , Adib Shishakly led a coup preempting a union with Iraq that was about to be declared. Soon after Shishakly's domination ended in , a union with Egypt under Gamal Abdul Nasser was implemented in The union, however, collapsed only two years later when a junta of young Damascene officers carried out a separatist coup.
Aleppo resisted the separatist coup, but eventually it had no choice but to recognize the new government. In March a coalition of Baathists , Nasserists , and Socialists launched a new coup whose declared objective was to restore the union with Egypt. However, the new government only restored the flag of the union.
Soon thereafter disagreement between the Baathists and the Nasserists over the restoration of the union became a crisis, and the Baathists ousted the Nasserists from power. The Nasserists, most of whom were from the Aleppine middle class, responded with an insurgency in Aleppo in July Again, the Ba'ath government tried to absorb the dissent of the Syrian middle class whose center of political activism was Aleppo by putting to the front Amin al-Hafiz , a Baathist military officer from Aleppo. President Hafez al-Assad , who came to power in , relied on support from the business class in Damascus.
The strict centralization of the Syrian state, the intentional direction of resources towards Damascus, and the hegemony Damascus enjoys over the Syrian economy made it increasingly hard for Aleppo to compete.
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Hence, Aleppo is no longer an economic or cultural capital of Syria as it once used to be. On 12 August , some months after protests had begun elsewhere in Syria, anti-government protests were held in several districts of Aleppo, including the city's Sakhour district. At least two protesters had been shot dead by security forces during a demonstration in Sakhour with tens of thousands of attendees. According to the New York Times , the 11 October rally in support of president Bashar al-Assad was attended by large crowds, [84] while state and local media claimed more than 1.
In early , security forces began to be targeted with bombings. On 10 February , suicide car bombs exploded outside two security compounds — the Military Intelligence Directorate 's local headquarters, and a Security Preservation forces barracks [86] — reportedly killing 28 four civilians, thirteen military personnel and eleven security personnel [86] and wounding In late July , the conflict reached Aleppo in earnest when fighters from the surrounding countryside mounted their first offensive there, [90] apparently trying to capitalise on momentum gained during the Damascus assault.
As a result of the severe battle, many sections in Al-Madina Souq part of the Old City of Aleppo World Heritage Site , including parts of the Great Mosque of Aleppo and other medieval buildings in the ancient city, were destroyed and ruined or burnt in late summer as the armed groups of the Free Syrian Army and the Syrian Arab Army fought for control of the city. A stalemate that had been in place for four years ended in July , when Syrian government troops closed the last supply line of the armed opposition into Aleppo with the support of Russian airstrikes.
In response, rebel forces launched unsuccessful counteroffensives in September and October that failed to break the siege; in November, government forces embarked on a decisive campaign. The rebels agreed to evacuate from their remaining areas in December On 22 December, the evacuation was completed with the Syrian Army declaring it had taken complete control of the city.
When the battle ended, , refugees and internally displaced persons returned to Aleppo, [17] and hundreds of factories returned to production as electricity supply greatly increased.
As a result, he said the pro-Syrian government forces had regained control of the districts previously controlled by them. The city is surrounded by farmlands from the north and the west, widely cultivated with olive and pistachio trees. To the east, Aleppo approaches the dry areas of the Syrian Desert. The city was founded a few kilometres south of the location of the current old city, on the right bank of Queiq River which arises from the Aintab plateau in the north and runs through Aleppo southward to the fertile country of Qinnasrin.