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The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained their customary laws. They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration. After the outbreak of the Berber Revolt in , the Berbers formed other independent states such as the Miknasa of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata. According to medieval legend, Idris ibn Abdallah had fled to Morocco after the Abbasids ' massacre of his tribe in Iraq. He convinced the Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in The Idrisids established Fes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of Muslim learning and a major regional power.

The Idrissids were ousted in by the Fatimid Caliphate and their Miknasa allies.

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After Miknasa broke off relations with the Fatimids in , they were removed from power by the Maghrawa of Sijilmasa in From the 11th century onwards, a series of Berber dynasties arose. From the 13th century onwards the country saw a massive migration of the Banu Hilal Arab tribes. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Merinids held power in Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads through military campaigns in Algeria and Spain.

They were followed by the Wattasids. Portuguese efforts to control the Atlantic sea trade in the 15th century did not greatly affect the interior of Morocco even though they managed to control some possessions on the Moroccan coast but not venturing further afield inland. In , the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent from the Islamic prophet , Muhammad : first the Saadi dynasty who ruled from to , and then the Alaouite dynasty , who remain in power since the 17th century.

The reign of Ahmad al-Mansur brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and a large expedition to West Africa inflicted a crushing defeat on the Songhay Empire in However, managing the territories across the Sahara proved too difficult. After the death of al-Mansur, the country was divided among his sons. In , Morocco was reunited by the Alaouite dynasty, who have been the ruling house of Morocco ever since.

Morocco was facing aggression from Spain and the Ottoman Empire allies pressing westward. The Alaouites succeeded in stabilising their position, and while the kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. Against the opposition of local tribes Ismail Ibn Sharif — began to create a unified state.

However, the Siege of Melilla against the Spanish ended in defeat in Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as an independent nation in On 20 December , Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. As Europe industrialised, Northwest Africa was increasingly prized for its potential for colonisation. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as , not only to protect the border of its Algerian territory, but also because of the strategic position of Morocco with coasts on the Mediterranean and the open Atlantic.

Victorious Spain won a further enclave and an enlarged Ceuta in the settlement. In , Spain created a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco. In , France and Spain carved out zones of influence in Morocco.

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Recognition by the United Kingdom of France's sphere of influence provoked a strong reaction from the German Empire ; and a crisis loomed in The matter was resolved at the Algeciras Conference in The Agadir Crisis of increased tensions between European powers.

By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern and southern Saharan zones. Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco. Some bought up large amounts of the rich agricultural land, others organised the exploitation and modernisation of mines and harbours.

Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco — a control which was also made necessary by the continuous wars among Moroccan tribes, part of which had taken sides with the French since the beginning of the conquest. Governor general Marshall Hubert Lyautey sincerely admired Moroccan culture and succeeded in imposing a joint Moroccan-French administration, while creating a modern school system.

Between and , a Berber uprising in the Rif Mountains, led by Abd el-Krim , led to the establishment of the Republic of the Rif. The Spanish lost more than 13, soldiers at Annual in July—August That party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement. France's exile of Sultan Mohammed V in to Madagascar and his replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa sparked active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates. The most notable violence occurred in Oujda where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets.

France allowed Mohammed V to return in , and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year. A month later Spain forsook its protectorate in Northern Morocco to the new state but kept its two coastal enclaves Ceuta and Melilla on the Mediterranean coast which dated from earlier conquests. Sultan Mohammed became king in Morocco held its first general elections in However, Hassan declared a state of emergency and suspended parliament in In , there was a failed attempt to depose the king and establish a republic.

A truth commission set up in to investigate human rights abuses during his reign confirmed nearly 10, cases, ranging from death in detention to forced exile. Some people were recorded killed during Hassan's rule according to the truth commission. The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south was returned to Morocco in The Polisario movement was formed in , with the aim of establishing an independent state in the Spanish Sahara. Some , civilians were reported as being involved in the " Green March ".

Moroccan forces occupied the territory. Moroccan and Algerian troops soon clashed in Western Sahara. Morocco and Mauritania divided up Western Sahara. Fighting between the Moroccan military and Polisario forces continued for many years. The prolonged war was a considerable financial drain on Morocco. In , Hassan cancelled planned elections amid political unrest and economic crisis. Polisario claimed to have killed more than 5, Moroccan soldiers between and Algerian authorities have estimated the number of Sahrawi refugees in Algeria to be , In , a UN-monitored ceasefire began in Western Sahara, but the territory's status remains undecided and ceasefire violations are reported.

The following decade saw much wrangling over a proposed referendum on the future of the territory but the deadlock was not broken. Political reforms in the s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in and Morocco's first opposition-led government came to power in He is a cautious moderniser who has introduced some economic and social liberalisation. Mohammed VI paid a controversial visit to the Western Sahara in Morocco unveiled an autonomy blueprint for Western Sahara to the United Nations in The Polisario rejected the plan and put forward its own proposal.

Spanish troops had taken the normally uninhabited island after Moroccan soldiers landed on it and set up tents and a flag. There were renewed tensions in , as hundreds of African migrants tried to storm the borders of the Spanish enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta. Morocco deported hundreds of the illegal migrants. In , the Spanish Premier Zapatero visited Spanish enclaves. He was the first Spanish leader in 25 years to make an official visit to the territories. During the — Moroccan protests , thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and a new constitution curbing the powers of the king.

In July , the King won a landslide victory in a referendum on a reformed constitution he had proposed to placate the Arab Spring protests. Despite the reforms made by Mohammed VI, demonstrators continued to call for deeper reforms. Hundreds took part in a trade union rally in Casablanca in May Participants accused the government of failing to deliver on reforms. Since Morocco controls most of Western Sahara, its de facto southern boundary is with Mauritania.

The geography of Morocco spans from the Atlantic Ocean, to mountainous areas, to the Sahara desert.

It is one of only three nations along with Spain and France to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. A large part of Morocco is mountainous. The Atlas Mountains are located mainly in the centre and the south of the country. The Rif Mountains are located in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by the Berber people. Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast, though the border between the two countries has been closed since To the north, Morocco is bordered by the Strait of Gibraltar, where international shipping has unimpeded transit passage between the Atlantic and Mediterranean.

The Rif mountains stretch over the region bordering the Mediterranean from the north-west to the north-east.

The Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, [55] from the northeast to the southwest. Most of the southeast portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south lies the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony that was annexed by Morocco in see Green March.

Morocco's capital city is Rabat ; its largest city is its main port, Casablanca. The country's Mediterranean climate is similar to that of southern California , with lush forests in the northern and central mountain ranges of the country, giving way to drier conditions and inland deserts further southeast. The Moroccan coastal plains experience remarkably moderate temperatures even in summer, owing to the effect of the cold Canary Current off its Atlantic coast.

In the Rif, Middle and High Atlas Mountains, there exist several different types of climates: Mediterranean along the coastal lowlands, giving way to a humid temperate climate at higher elevations with sufficient moisture to allow for the growth of different species of oaks, moss carpets, junipers, and Atlantic fir which is a royal conifer tree endemic to Morocco.

In the valleys, fertile soils and high precipitation allow for the growth of thick and lush forests. At higher elevations, the climate becomes alpine in character, and can sustain ski resorts. Southeast of the Atlas mountains, near the Algerian borders, the climate becomes very dry, with long and hot summers.