The rest of the localities had almost similar costs Fig. The financial loss as a percentage of the total annual revenue per capita varied from an area to other ones.
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The socio-economic characteristics suggest certain poverty indices that reflect the vulnerability of communities living in some municipalities of Bukavu to cholera epidemics. Most of these communities are poor, relying predominantly on either farm incomes, self-employment small-business. The daily income disparities in total monthly incomes are also large, which is symptomatic of inequity in these communities.
The type of food and frequency of meals that a household has is a good measure of household food security. Although most of the households reported having a fairly well balanced diet of proteins and carbohydrates, a significant proportion of the households in the study areas indicated days of household food shortages. Inhabitants of Bagira grow sell all their agricultural produces. Coupled with other factors, such as income levels, promiscuity, population density and food insecurity, this is an indication of the low socio-economic status inherent in these communities.
There is a noticeable rise in temperature from to in the province. A local warming rate of about 0.
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The mean daily temperatures in DRC will rise by 1. The increase in temperature will be more during the cool months of June, July and August than during the warm months of December-January and February. The deference between the two periods was predicted to be about 1. The increase in annual temperature over the whole country is predicted to be between 1.
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A preliminary study of temperature from some stations in eastern DRC representing different zones show predominantly increasing annual temperatures suggesting that temperature is bound to increase throughout the eastern part of the country Such temperature trends coupled with variations in rainfall are likely to be forceful in designing mitigation and adaptation measures, as they will have different impacts on different ecosystems and production and on health systems.
These changes are therefore expected to vary across the province but will mostly have negative impacts on agriculture and food security, livestock production and health, water resources, energy, human health, forest ecosystems and biodiversity, wetlands integrity, and above all the attainment of the millennium development goals. The impact of climate change and climate variability in eastern DRC is therefore increasingly threatening the livelihoods of especially rural population with low income, food insecurity, inadequate health services, unstable energy supplies, and fragile natural ecosystems.
As such, agriculture, water, energy, health and forestry are the most vulnerable sectors of the economy under climate change impacts in eastern Congo Congo is not homogeneous from a climatic point of view. Some areas have bi-modal rains i. Elsewhere in the country, especially in the southern Katanga province rainfall is mainly unimodal, starting from November and running until End April.
Bambuti and Batwa in the shadows of DRC’s flawed election - Minority Rights Group
There will be increased rainfall in some parts of country while other parts will experience decreased rainfall by The other areas receiving uni-modal rainfall pattern, Southern part of the country may experience a decrease in annual rainfall by a range of between 0. These precipitation predictions do offer greater regional specificity, however, the results should be interpreted with caution as they do not include an uncertainty analysis and rely on preliminary analysis There is an increasing frequency of erratic rainfall pattern throughout the country, particularly in eastern.
For example, in the past decade, South-Kivu province had been receiving delayed rainfalls starting in November instead of September , making the rainy season to become shorter. Overall annualized rainfall values are on decreasing trend in the province although there may be a great variability in trend of rainfall across territories. Some territories Mwenga show increasing rainfall trends in both long and short rain seasons.
On the other hand, rainfalls for other territories Kabare, Walungu and Uvira there is a slight increasing trend during October to December short rain season and significant increase during March to May long rains. Territories locates near water bodies and forest Idjwi do not show any change in rainfall while Kalehe plain shows increasing rainfall trends. Uvira Ruzizi plain did show decreasing trends for both seasons.
These few examples show the variability in weather patterns as influenced by climate variability, which may not justify the same adaptation and mitigation measures for the public health. This may therefore call for specific health adaptation and mitigation measures in different areas territories depending on the observed variability.
Disease vectors have climatic thresholds 20 that govern their abundance and potential for disease transmission. Therefore, an increase in temperatures would cause worldwide net increase in the geographical distribution of vector organisms, with impacts on the timing and severity of infection disease epidemics in many areas of the world. There are few detailed studies on climate related costs in the health sector in Sub-Sahara Africa and in Uganda.
This is the first tempting to link cases of cholera to environmental and socio-economic factors in predicting climate change impacts to cholera in Congo and assessing the related costs. The results of the regression model predicted a future disease burden with average temperature increase. It was also predicted that a reduction in the incidence rates of cholera in case of normal rainfall. The increase in the incidence of Cholera may be partially and or primarily attributed to change in the rainfall and in temperature.
It is likely that increase in the variability in rainfall and temperature will would undergo increase in cholera cases in the future. Although accurate costs were not estimated given the lack of consistent long-term socio-economic datasets in the province, the reliability of regressions analyses is to some extent limited. It is likely that, with more time-specific data available on health and climate variables, the results could show even stronger impacts.
In addition, the impacts of climate variability on the burden of disease in the form of cholera are complex and dependent on a number of risk factors from local socio-environmental conditions. The estimates presented in this paper seem high, considering that cholera is included as a diarrheal disease in the study by The results in this study conform to what would be expected given previous evidence on linkages between environmental risk factors and cholera in central Africa adding to the existing evidence of the implications of climate change for cholera.
This is normal since diarrheal patients can be treated as outpatients, while treatment of cholera has to include hospitalization for an average of five to six days per case, as well as the cost of surveillance of other people than the patient.
Introuduction
Overall, cholera is an acute intestinal disease caused by infection of the V. Often manifested as a constant diarrhoeal disease, cholera is associated with significant mortality as well as economic loss due to the strain on health care. Cholera often affects nations with lower economic status. Cholera is often associated with low-income nations where it can cause significant mortality and economic loss during outbreaks and even be endemic to a certain region. Cholera is considered endemic to a region when the bacterium inhabits the native environment and outbreaks are independent of imported cases.
Cholera may become endemic to a region through various routes, which are dependent on the local environmental conditions. Commonly, the collapse of water sanitization and water routing infrastructure is the main cause of cholera outbreaks. Recently, multiple-drug-resistant V. Furthermore, the interaction between this waterborne bacterium, the human host, and the environment 4 needs significant consideration when building strategies for cholera management and eradication. Importantly, due to the overburden of many health-care systems, frequently cholera cases go underreported.
Cholera outbreaks are currently being reported in the Democratic Republic of Congo, specifically, in locations in proximity to the Congo River and major Lakes. The WHO has reported 3, cases with associated deaths attributed to this cholera outbreak as of 20 July in western Congo 1. There is a need to put in places adaptation and preventives measures to reduce the burden of Cholera cases. Promiscuity, demographic explosion and consumption of artesian water sources and consumption of crude water from Lake Kivu may favor the Cholera transmission among human beings.
It is believed that improved sanitation and hygiene facilities should be vital components of the planning and provision of water supply services by the REGIDESO the national water corporation company to prevent Cholera Outbreaks. In brief, there is a need to reduce vulnerability to cholera from improved water access and sources, as well as medical treatment in cases of illness. The lack of introduction of adequate preventive adaptation measures will continue increasing the burden of disease and the related financial costs will increase considerably.
Thus, the need to initiate new key structural developments in the water and sanitation sectors in Bukavu town.
Information of safe way of handling cholera cases is lacking. Public perception and awareness of extreme weather events and disease are among the critical factors determining the prevention and adaptive capacity of individuals and communities to the impact s of such climate-sensitive diseases as cholera.
The African Stakes of the Congo War
Based on experiential rather than scientific underpinnings, the respondents indicate that cholera occurs mostly during wet weather conditions and during periods of low water supply associated with dry seasons. Similarly, awareness of the causes and prevention of cholera is equally high. Most households are knowledgeable about the necessary medical treatment, such as the use of antibiotics and oral rehydration salts.
However, they indicated that they rarely used such medical treatment because of the costs involved and instead relied on those that were distributed during such epidemics. It has been found that cholera is significantly underreported, which can possibly be expanded further to other regions. The main reason for this situation is the limitations of disease surveillance.
As well as monitoring disease outbreaks 13 and tracking individual cholera infections and mortalities, it is also imperative to have vigilant testing for antibiotic resistance as several multiple-drug-resistant V. Inadequate and poorly monitored water treatment and supply systems are often responsible for cholera outbreaks 6 , 7. The transfer of water supply has been suggested as a precipitating factor in the major outbreak of cholera in western Congo.
Water supply-and-demand infrastructure issues can cause local people to use self-maintained shallow wells that can easily become contaminated with bacterium that cause cholera.
Journal of Global Citizenship & Equity Education, Vol 2, No 2 (2012)
As well, poor water sanitation and open drains allowing easy contamination of V. Environmental factors have significant influence on the outbreak potential and pathogenesis of V. It is obvious that the fecal-oral transmission route relies heavily on the ecology of the native water supply. Furthermore, the seasonal water cycles have been shown to affect the emergence and re-emergence of V. These issues are important in defining coping mechanisms The poverty indicators undermine the coping mechanisms 11 that could help the susceptible urban and rural communities reduce their vulnerability to cholera epidemics in South-Kivu province.
This is because of lack of economic resources to invest in health coping mechanisms that can offset the costs of adaptation. Measures employed at the household level include washing hands before meals, treating drinking water, and constructing pit latrines. The communities were also able to distinguish between the different levels of responsibility in the control of cholera.
Cholera is a devastating disease that affects hundreds of thousands of people per year. Over , cases were reported to the WHO in but case estimates exceed , worldwide It is clear that management of this disease requires consideration of many aspects including molecular biology, the environment, local governmental water treatment programs, and improved local, national and international case reporting Overall, cholera outbreaks and epidemics can be linked to natural, socio-economic, and health systems.
The climate data used in this study showed that the onset of cholera at Bukavu town starts earliest in the month of April within any given year following a sustained 1 to 3 months period of average, maximum and minimum temperature in January—February—March, in combination with above-normal rains from April through December. There may be some epidemics in January that are related to sustained average temperatures in September—October—November and December season. Persistent levels of poverty, civil wars and in security may have contributed to make human communities to be more vulnerable to cholera epidemics in eastern of Congo.
Such programs should take into consideration the demographic trends, ecological and socio-economic and education factors. Similarly, the public health infrastructure and the institutions of governance need to be improved. The management of cholera outbreaks and epidemics must factor in climate considerations if it is to reduce vulnerability and increase the adaptive capacity of the lake basin communities.